India's Nuclear Ascendancy - An Analysis

MISSION

To develop nuclear power technology and to produce Nuclear Power as a safe, environmentally benign and economically viable source of electrical energy to meet the increasing electricity needs of the country. - Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited [NPCIL]

Dr. Homi Jehangir Bhabha, the founding Father & Chairman of India's Atomic Energy Commission

The Basics of Nuclear Fission

Let us learn in layman’s language what exactly Nuclear energy means. Nuclear energy is produced by controlled nuclear reactions. In a typical nuclear reactor, the energy released from continuous splitting of atoms of the fuel is harnessed as heat in either gas or water, and is used to produce steam. The steam drives the turbines that produce electricity. Control rods are used to ensure a controlled rate of the nuclear reactions.

Nuclear fission occurs when a larger isotope breaks apart into two or more elements. Scientists usually accomplish this task by bombarding a large isotope with a second, smaller one, commonly a neutron. The collision results in a controlled nuclear fission. Reaction of this type releases a lot of energy. However, during this process, some matter disappears during the nuclear reaction and this loss of matter is called "mass defect". The missing matter is what converted into energy.

Chain reactions and Critical Mass

During nuclear fission of U-235, only one neutron is used, but three are produced, these three neutrons encounter other U-235 atoms and initiate other fission, producing even more neutrons. This process is termed as a “self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction” or in other words, it is a process of continuous nuclear fission.

Link:The chain reaction of uranium-235

Isotopes that produce an excess of neutrons in their fission support a chain reaction. This type of isotope is termed as a “fissionable nuclear fuel”, and the two most common fissionable isotopes used during nuclear reactions are Uranium-235 and Plutonium-239. The minimum amount of fissionable material needed to ensure a chain reaction is “critical mass” and anything less than this amount is “sub-critical”.

Atomic bombs

Because of the tremendous amount of energy released in a fission chain reaction, the military implications of nuclear reactions are immense. In an atomic bomb, two fissionable isotopes are kept apart. Each piece, by itself, is sub-critical. When it is time for the bomb to explode, conventional explosives force the two pieces fuse together to cause a critical mass. The chain reaction is uncontrolled, releasing a tremendous amount of energy instantaneously.
Nuclear power plants

The secret to controlling a chain reaction is to control the neutrons and this is achieved by the scientists by complex methods. In many respects, a nuclear power plant is similar to a conventional fossil fuel power plant such as coal, oil and natural gas which is burnt to generate heat to boil water and then steam. This steam is utilized to turn turbines, which are in turn attached to a generator to produce electricity. The big difference between a conventional power plant and a nuclear power plant is that the nuclear power plant produces heat through nuclear fission chain reactions.

Link: Nuclear Fuel Process

THE INDIAN NUCLEAR PROGRAM

Electricity is a predominant input for the economic development of any country. In spite of the impressive strides in increasing overall installed capacity in the India, the country is still facing power shortages. Options available for commercial electricity generation are hydro, thermal, nuclear and renewable sources. In the energy planning of the country, a judicious mix of hydro, thermal, nuclear and renewable is an important aspect. Diversified energy resource-base is essential to meet electricity requirements and to ensure long-term energy security. With the limited resources of coal and oil available in the country and growing global concerns of greenhouse gases generated by fossil fuel fired stations, in the medium and long-term perspective nuclear power is designated to play a vital role. For a trillion dollar plus economy, like India, increase in the nuclear generation capacity is rational and an inevitable approach as it is environmentally benign, commercially viable and ensures the energy security of the country.

Dr. Homi Bhabha conceived a three-stage nuclear program as a way to develop nuclear energy by working around India's limited uranium resources, which is discussed in detail later in the article. India's long-term nuclear power program is based on utilizing the vast indigenous thorium resources for electricity generation. India's uranium resources can support a first-stage program of about 10,000 MW based on Pressurized Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs) using natural uranium as fuel and heavy water as moderator and coolant. The energy potential of natural uranium can be increased to about 3,00,000 MW in the second stage though Fast Breeder Reactors (FBRs) which utilize plutonium obtained from the recycled spent fuel of the first stage along with thorium as blanket, to produce U-233. With the deployment of thorium at third stage using U-233 as fuel, the energy potential for electricity generation is large and substantial. Indigenous industrial infrastructure for reactor program is well- developed. Special infrastructure for the production of fuel, heavy water, reactor control and instrumentation has been developed within the Department of Atomic Energy. Indian industry has gained valuable experience and reached a stage of maturity in manufacturing equipment, components and handling of mega package contracts for these reactors.

THE THREE-STAGE NUCLEAR POWER PROGRAM

Stage-1

Includes setting up Pressurized Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs) using natural uranium. The first stage commenced on 16th December 1973 with the commercial operation of RAPS-1. This stage has reached commercial maturity. As of 31st March 2011, India operates 18 PHWRs totaling 4,460 MW capacities and 4 PHWRs of 2,800 MW capacity is under construction.

Stage-2

This includes setting up Fast Breeder Reactors (FBRs), which uses plutonium, fueled by Plutonium produced in stage-1. These reactors would also breed U-233 from Thorium. This has been commercially launched with the construction of 500 MW Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor (PFBR) at Kalpakkam, Tamil Nadu.

Stage-3

This includes using Uranium 233 - Thorium 232, obtained by reprocessing the spent fuel of the stage-2. They technology has been developed and adopted.

BRIEF HISTORY

In 1948, the Indian Atomic Energy Act was enacted and the Atomic Energy Commission was set up as the policy making body to create opportunities in Indian atomic energy. In July 1954, the Department of Atomic Energy commenced operations to administer the atomic energy programs. Dr. Bhabha began discussions with top officials of the United Kingdom, Soviet Union and the US. In August 1960, Tarapur, 100 km from Mumbai, was chosen as the site for setting up India’s first nuclear power reactors. In October, global tenders were invited for constructing two nuclear reactors. On 8th May 1964, an agreement was signed between the governments of India and USA, wherein General Electric, USA, was to undertake construction and commissioning of two BWRs at Tarapur. The construction commenced in October same year. The Power Project Engineering Division was incorporated under the DAE in 1967, in order to design, construct and operate nuclear power plants.

The first Pressurized Heavy Water Reactor (PHWR) in India set up with Canadian collaboration in 1971 at Rawatbhata, Kota, Rajasthan commenced operations. In September 1987, Nuclear Power Board (NPB) was converted into Nuclear Power Corporation of India Ltd (NPCIL) with the objective of taking nuclear power in commercial domain. All the assets and liabilities of NPB, excepting RAPS-1, which owned still by DAE, were transferred to NPCIL. It continued to add capacity through PHWRs including two PHWRs of each 540 MW to reach total generation capacity of 4,780 MW.

India's research reactor, CIRUS commissioned in 1954, was based on Canada's 40 MW Chalk River National Research X-perimental (NRX) design, a heavy-water-moderated, light-water-cooled research reactor and it went critical in July 1960. The reactor burns natural uranium fuel, while using heavy water (deuterium oxide) as a moderator. The reactor can be fueled online is capable of producing about 9-10 kgs of weapons-grade plutonium annually. This reactor centered around materials testing, solid-state physics research, and isotope production, although it initially served as a prototype heavy-water plutonium production reactor. Heavy water for the CIRUS reactor was provided by the United States; hence the "US" in the title, the original name for the reactor was simply "CIR", for "Canada-India Reactor".

PHASES OF GROWTH

Nuclear Power Corporation of India Ltd (NPCIL) has been the nodal agency, which manages the development and management of India’s nuclear program.

DEMONSTRATION PHASE

Set up with imported technology and what was India's first nuclear power station consisting of 2 Boiling Water Reactors, the Tarapur Atomic Power Station Units 1&2 commenced commercial operation in the year 1969. This was the first nuclear power station in Asia, outside the then Soviet Union. The Tarapur experience helped to gain familiarity with integrating nuclear power reactors with the Indian grid system. Next, in collaboration with Canada, the first Pressurized Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs) were set up in Rajasthan (RAPS-1&2).

TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT PHASE

Subsequently, India made it a policy to develop the program in an indigenous fashion. The Indian industry and different units of DAE developed the entire technology for nuclear power plant, such as, the construction of reactor equipment, steam generators, end shields, instrumentation, controls and the like.

STANDARDIZATION PHASE

Having developed the required technology indigenously, efforts are being made to standardize it for repetition and duplication at newer sites thereby reaping the benefits of the standardization.

COMMERCIAL PHASE

Today, India stands at the helm of affairs with confidence emanating from the long years of experience and expertise, geared to enter the commercial era of nuclear technology.

OPERATIONAL NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS (Text Source: Wikipedia)

UNIT	TYPE	CAPACITY (MWe)	SINCE
TAPS-1 (Tarapur, Maharashtra)	BWR	160	28 October 1969
TAPS-2 (Tarapur, Maharashtra)	BWR	160	28 October 1969
TAPS-3 (Tarapur, Maharashtra)	PHWR	540	18 August 2006
TAPS-4 (Tarapur, Maharashtra)	PHWR	540	15 September 2005
RAPS-1 (Rawatbhata, Rajasthan)	PHWR	100	16 December 1973
RAPS-2 (Rawatbhata, Rajasthan)	PHWR	200	1 April 1981
RAPS-3 (Rawatbhata, Rajasthan)	PHWR	220	1 June 2000
RAPS-4 (Rawatbhata, Rajasthan)	PHWR	220	23 December 2000
RAPS-5 (Rawatbhata, Rajasthan)	PHWR	220	4 February 2010
RAPS-6 (Rawatbhata, Rajasthan)	PHWR	220	31 March 2010
MAPS-1 (Kalpakkam, Tamil Nadu)	PHWR	220	27 January 1984
MAPS-2 (Kalpakkam, Tamil Nadu)	PHWR	220	21 March 1986
NAPS-1 (Narora, Uttar Pradesh)	PHWR	220	1 January 1991
NAPS-2 (Narora, Uttar Pradesh)	PHWR	220	1 July 1992
KAPS-1 (Kakrapar, Gujarat)	PHWR	220	6 May 1993
KAPS-2 (Kakrapar, Gujarat)	PHWR	220	1 September 1995
KGS-1 (Kaiga, Karnataka)	PHWR	220	6 November 2000
KGS-2 (Kaiga, Karnataka)	PHWR	220	6 May 2000
KGS-3 (Kaiga, Karnataka)	PHWR	220	6 May 2007
KGS-4 (Kaiga, Karnataka)	PHWR	220	27 November 2010
KNPP-1 (Kudankulam, Tamil Nadu)	VVER -1000	1000	22 October 2013
TOTAL CAPACITY		5780

UNDER CONSTRUCTION NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS (Text Source: Wikipedia)

UNIT UNDER CONSTRUCTION	TYPE	CAPACITY (MWe)	EXPECTED DATE
KNPP-2 (Kudankulam, Tamil Nadu)	VVER -1000	1000	Mar-2015
KAPS-3 (Kakrapar, Gujarat)	PHWR	700	Jun-2015
KAPS-4 (Kakrapar, Gujarat)	PHWR	700	Dec-2015
RAPS-7 (Rawatbhata, Rajasthan)	PHWR	700	Jun-2016
RAPS-8 (Rawatbhata, Rajasthan)	PHWR	700	Dec-2016
TOTAL CAPACITY		3800

PROPOSED NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS (Text Source: Wikipedia)

UNIT PROPOSED	TYPE	CAPACITY (MWe)	EXPECTED DATE
Jaitapur Nuclear Power Project	European Pressurized Reactor	9900	2017
TOTAL CAPACITY		9900

Link: NPCIL Presence

PERFORMANCE HIGHLIGHTS

• The total power generation was 32,863 MU in FY 2012-13 compared to 32,451 MU in the previous year. The Capacity Factor (Plant Load Factor) during 2012-13 was 80 per cent against 79 per cent in 2011-12.
• The nuclear power reactors under IAEA safeguards, for which imported fuel is available in the required quantity, operated with overall 97% capacity factor.
• The overall Availability Factor of the reactors in operation continued to be high at 91% during the year.
• Tarapur Atomic Power Station unit-3 (TAPS-3), 540 MW Pressurized Heavy Water Reactor (PHWR), achieved a continuous operation for 522 days, thus joining the fleet of 9 nuclear power reactors which have earlier recorded continuous operation over one year.
• NPCIL's instruments continued to be maintained at AAA rating
• The safety record of NPCIL is impeccable over 362 cumulative reactor-years of safe, accident free operations.
• Three projects namely KNPP-1 & 2 (2 X 1000 MW LWRs), KAPP-3 & 4 (2X 700 MW PHWRs) and RAPP-7 & 8 (2 X 700 MW PHWRs) are under various stages of construction and commissioning.
• KNPP Unit-1 which is also India's first 1000 MW pressurized water reactor went critical on 13 July 2013.
• Pre-project activities like Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF) clearance, land acquisition, site infrastructure development works, etc. are in various stages of progress at green field sites in Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Rajasthan and West Bengal.
• Several atomic power plants had continuous run on an average of more than 435 days, which is a new record.

A team of scientists at a premier Indian nuclear facility has designed an innovative reactor that can run on thorium - available in abundance in the country - and will eventually do away with the need for uranium. The Fast Thorium Breeder Reactor (FTBR) being developed by Shri. V. Jagannathan and his team has received global attention. By using a judicious mix of 'seed' plutonium and fertile zones inside the core, the scientists have show that their design can breed not one but two nuclear fuels, U-233 from thorium and plutonium from depleted uranium within the same reactor.

UNIQUE LANDMARK ACHIEVEMENT (TECHNOLOGY DEMONSTRATOR)

At present, there are no internal fertile blankets or fissile breeding zones in power reactors operating in the world. Thorium-based fuels and fuel cycles have been used in the past and are being developed in a few countries but are yet to be commercialized. However, BARC's Prototype Fast Thorium Breeder Reactor (PFTBR) is claimed to be the first design that truly exploits the concept of "breeding" in a reactor that uses thorium. The handful of Fast Breeder Reactors (FBRs) in the world today - including the one India is building in Kalpakkam near Chennai, use plutonium as fuel. These breeders have to wait until enough plutonium to be accumulated through reprocessing of spent fuel discharged by thermal power reactors that run on Uranium. In February 2014, BARC presented its latest design for a "next-generation nuclear reactor" that will burn thorium as its fuel. The target date to commission the system is envisioned for 2016 and it would be a completely automated design which means it would not require any operator to run the reactor for more than two months. The commissioning of PFTBR would make India the most advanced country in thorium research. The concept has won praise from nuclear experts elsewhere. According to former BARC Director P.K. Iyengar, this new design is one way of utilizing thorium and circumventing the delays in building plutonium for India's FBRs. (Text based on reports from Times of India, Circa 2007)

THE REMARKABLE LILLIPUTIAN MARVEL

NS Arihant's Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR)

After 25 year of indigenous effort, India has joined an elite club of five nations namely Russia, USA, UK, France and China who can build and operate their own nuclear powered submarines. The reactor uses enriched uranium as fuel, and light water as both a coolant and moderator, it will generate about 80 MW. INS Arihant is a joint development of the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE), the Defense Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) and the Indian Navy. The Bhabha Atomic Research Center (BARC), Trombay, which is the DAE’s nodal agency, played a crucial role in designing and developing the Pressurized Water Reactor that powers INS Arihant.

The reactor on board INS Arihant (meaning "destroyer of enemies") is different from the reactors as in the nuclear power stations in terms of its compactness, safety parameters and the conditions at which it would work. There are many important systems, sub-systems and innumerable components, which are indigenously designed and manufactured.

THE KUDANKULAM ABERRANCY

Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant under construction Image: Wikipedia

The Fukushima nuclear disaster in Japan had brought about serious doubts regarding nuclear power generation as a safe operating alternative. Indians in general have always been proud of their accomplishments in nuclear science and the strides the country has taken to develop critical technologies indigenously without foreign assistance unlike in other high-technology industries. However, the Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant (KNPP) project experienced severe backlash by thousands of protesters in the name of safety and security. Christian Conspiracy cannot be ruled out in the scheme of things, as there are allegations from various agencies and the Home Ministry itself that several Christian organisations and Christian NGOs are behind the protest, the Church of South India (CSI), the Catholic Bishops Conference of India (CBCI) and the National Council of Churches (NCC) openly opposed the construction of the plant. There are concrete accusations that vested interested elements used divisive ways to foment passion and brainwash gullible believers by spreading false information in churches and missionary schools. In February 2012, Prime Minister Manmohan Singh blamed American and Scandinavian NGOs for fueling protests at the power plant. Gradually similar protests transmigrated to the Jaitapur NPP as well, but this time it was not the handiwork of Kudankulam mischief mongers. In view of the above, we can now examine how safe the KNPP is and it would not undergo any meltdown scenarios like the recent Japanese Fukushima complex in case of natural or man-made disasters.

KNPP's reactor design incorporates several inherent and extraneous safety features. These slides will help one understand and determine how unfounded and unsubstantiated the protests were.

The Voda Voda Energo Reactor (VVER) chosen for Kudankulam NPP is a series of pressurized water reactor (PWR) designs originally developed in erstwhile Soviet Union, now Russia, by OKB Gidropress. The VVER-1000 is a four-loop system housed in a containment-type structure with a spray steam suppression system. VVER reactor designs have been elaborated to incorporate automatic control, passive safety and containment systems associated with Western third generation nuclear reactors.

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Slides Source: NPCIL

DEMYSTIFYING NUCLEAR ENERGY IN INDIA

• Energy generated from a nuclear power plant is not expensive
• Nuclear power is safer than conventional energy sources
• Safety is a moving target
• Continued monitoring, periodic safety assessment and improvement of Indian nuclear power stations including national and international operating experience, performed by NPCIL as well as by the Regulatory authority Atomic Energy Regulatory Board (AERB)
• A variety of safety reviews and assessments are carried out as per the established requirement, which include the following:
• Routine reviews inclusive of review of Significant Event Reports
• Reviews of proposed modifications in design / operating procedures to assess their impact on plant safety
• Safety assessments for renewal of authorization
• Safety assessments in response to major incidents and operating experience both nationally and internationally
• Safety assessment related to major refurbishment
• Safety assessment for Plant life extension
• A nuclear power plant does not emit any greenhouse gas during electricity generation. Even though hydro power is considered the cleanest source of energy, its technology has problems of requisite geographical availability, submergence and geological surprises. In addition, wind, solar and geothermal power technologies are seriously limited by site and season specific availability constraints

THE ANATOMY OF NUCLEAR DISASTER

Nuclear power has a solid safety record for over three decades across the globe however there has been exceptions. The Three Mile Island (March 1979), Chernobyl (April 1986) and the Fukushima Daiichi (March 2011) accidents have raised apprehensions and incertitude in the minds of the public across the globe and provided invaluable fodder for the peaceniks. In the case of Three Mile Island, no radiation injury was reported. In fact, all the safety systems had worked as per design and there was no release of radioactivity into the atmosphere.The Fukushima nuclear disaster on the other hand occurred when a tsunami damaged the plant triggered by an earthquake, which resulted in the meltdown of three of its six nuclear reactors. As per the investigation following the disaster, the plant did not have adequate capability to resist earthquakes or tsunamis and as a result, all power to the plant and around the area was cut-off. This loss of virtually all power meant that the nuclear fuel inside the damaged reactors went without essential cooling. In Reactor 1, the exposed fuel soon reached 2,800 degrees Centigrade. Desperate plant personnel tried to cool the fuel with water from fire trucks and relieve the pressure building inside the reactors by venting gases and steam. The venting, subsequent explosions and leaks led to the release of radioactive material into both the atmosphere and the ground water. However, in the Chernobyl meltdown, 31 plant personnel died. The Chernobyl accident occurred due to operator negligence and errors that violated basic safety procedures. Moreover, Chernobyl reactor designs used graphite as the moderator and the combustible properties of graphite contributed to the explosion in the reactor core. Such an explosion will not occur in our reactors as they are cooled and moderated by heavy water and adequate safety features are in place to ensure safe operations. Therefore of all the accidents and incidents, only the Chernobyl and Fukushima accidents resulted in the release of radiation doses to the public greater than those resulting from the exposure to natural sources.While building a nuclear power plant high regard to the safety of its operating staff, public and the environment is considered. Monitoring by regulatory and safety experts is done on a periodic basis to prevent any eventualities, thus a Chernobyl type of accident is ruled out in our nuclear power plants.

To achieve optimum safety, nuclear plants in the west operate using a "defense-in-depth" approach with multiple safety systems supplementing the natural features of the reactor core design. 

Key aspects of the approach are:

• high-quality design & construction
• equipment which prevents operational disturbances or human failures and errors developing into problems
• comprehensive monitoring and regular testing to detect equipment or operator failures, redundant and diverse systems to control damage to the fuel and prevent significant radioactive releases
• provision to confine the effects of severe fuel damage (or any other problem) to the plant itself

These can be summed up as: Prevention, Monitoring, and Action to mitigate consequences of failures.

CONCLUSION

The Indian Nuclear science and technology development does not enjoy the same glamorous quotient that either the Space or the Defense sectors do. It is ironical that everyone overlooks the tremendous progress this industry has achieved over the past several years independently and worse people go to the extent of decrying it whenever an opportunity arises. After India exploded Pokhran II the impact and constraints faced by the industry were numerous especially with sanctions being imposed by several countries. The sanctions directly affected the supply of nuclear fuel thereby restricting the usage of the plants to its full capacity. In the interim the Department of Atomic Energy and NPCIL continued their quest to develop and improve nuclear power generation in India indigenously. After the historic Indo-US Civil Nuclear Agreement and the Nuclear Supply Group waiver, this critical sector has seen a revival in its activities and bolstered India’s position as a important Nuclear power.

Major Source: 

(Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited - http://npcil.nic.in/index.aspx

is a Public Limited Company under the administrative control of the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE), Government of India. It is responsible for the design, construction, operation and maintenance of nuclear power plants)

Others: Wikipedia & Other Research Papers

The Portal:

(A very comprehensive portal on India’s research and development and the current status in the nuclear power sector. Unlike other government sponsored websites which are rather miserable this site offers tremendous amount of information with a neatly designed interface…highly recommended)